FAS1101 Compiled - Main Essay

Final Essay
Title: The case for Hybridity in popular Thai religion
Question: Which is the more plausible theory—syncretism or hybridism/hybridity? 
This paper posits that hybridism is the more plausible explanation for the development of modern local Thai religious beliefs, in comparison to syncretism. This is due to the decline in power of the primary religious force, the rise of individualism and the effects of globalisation. According to Hays (2008), although the Thai constitution enforces religious tolerance in the nation, the majority - 93%-  of Thai people are Buddhist. The monarch of Thailand must also legally practice Theravada Buddhism - the branch of Buddhism which is most widespread in Thailand and associated with Thailand's politics and governing system. Theravada Buddhism became more institutionalized with Thai politics with the ascension of King Mongkut -who was a monk- to the throne in 1851. The term "popular Thai religion" refers to the collective or individual beliefs of the general public in Thailand, regarding which changing trends will be discussed. This is highly dependent on the changing views of Thai society, which may be altered due to national or external forces. 
Anthropologically speaking, syncretism is the synchronisation of the world views from different cultures (Richard, 2014). The root word "synchronisation" suggests that whilst multiple ideologies may exist at the same time, be complimentary to each other and move or develop in tandem, they remain the same and separate from another. Hybridism, on the other hand, is the creation of a new culture from parts of pre-existing ideologies (Kraidy, 2002). It does not refer to the creation of an entirely new religion per se, but rather introduces new ways of thinking by altering or adding to established beliefs and practices. Hybridity manifests as fluidity, as well as the idea of bringing together multiple, possibly contradictory cultures to create an entirely new perspective. The advent of religious hybridity in Thailand may have begun as a reaction to Thai society's growing complexity. When people are given more choices and the free will to control their individual actions - rather than following a herd mentality or venerated leader - it is inevitable that ideas and cultures become less compartmentalized. Thus, in comparing these two theories, it must be argued that whilst both coexist in the realm of Southeast Asian supernaturalism, hybridism is likely to be the more representative and credible description of the current demographic due to developments and the changing circumstances of Thailand in the last few decades. 
The term “syncretism” is no longer relevant for describing Thai popular religion. McCargo (2007) suggests that decreased power in recent years of the main authority figure of Buddhism in Thailand - the Sangha - has left the direction and interpretation of Buddhist teachings and philosophy less strict and influential on everyday life. Pattana Kitiarsa (2012),  explains the syncretism of Thai religion as being such that while there may be fragmentation of religion, Theravada Buddhism remains the consistently strong and authoritative force , subsuming other beliefs under the general term "Thai Buddism". This is an inadequate and archaic way of thinking which does not take into account the sentiments of Thais in recent years. This highlights the loss of influence the Sangha -the primary monastic assembly in Thailand- had on the masses.  In the past, Thomas Kirsch (1977) characterised Buddhism as being syncretic in 3 separate aspects, all moving in sync with one another: Theravada Buddhism, Brahmanism and Animism. In the past, when the Sangha held more power, people who disagreed with their interpretation of orthodox Buddhist teachings may have been excommunicated, thereby being forced to break away and form another branch incorporating their beliefs. This left no room for inclusiveness or the mixture of old ideas with the new. These days, however, Buddhism is more open to hybridism in the less stringent enforcement of religious rules, allowing individuals to interpret the rules by themselves and alter previously inflexible religious laws to suit more practical needs or satisfy wants. This leaves popular religion in Thailand more diverse and personalised, transitioning to a values-based way of life instead of rules-based, and therefore allowing for the creation of new beliefs about a centuries-old religion .  Contributing factors to this change include recent scandals and rumours regarding corruption within Buddhist monks and even the Sangha itself as reported by Lefevre and Niyomyat (2016), resulting in the Sangha's reduced influence over Thais. The fact that Theravada Buddhism is also one of the most conservative branches of Buddhism when it comes to matters of doctrine and monastic discipline, reiterates the damage done to the people's trust in their source of guidance. Hence, it is easy to see why the Sangha is no longer being held in as high a regard by public opinion as they once were. With the decline in the Sangha's stronghold over the belief of the masses, there was no central direction or authority figure to reinforce the orthodox interpretation of Buddhism to drive and direct the religion, leaving it vulnerable to change. 
Another reason why hybridity overrides syncretism as the primary paradigm representingb popular religion in Thailand is that modern ways of thinking have infiltrated and, in some cases, overridden the past reliance on Buddhism with regards to direction and decisions made in daily life. Many modern Southeast Asians have developed scepticism towards their indigenous ancestors' religion due to migration and the emergence of scientific enquiry and empirical reasoning (both by-products of rapid urbanisation) which takes away the reliance on religion as an explanation for events. As a result, the society moves away from a syncretic religious environment in which there were clear social markers between the religious and non-religious, and towards a hybrid one whereby the working man is able to maintain consumerist worldly pleasures whilst remaining true to his interpretation of the Buddha's teachings. The demographic of Thais has become more diverse and less biased towards the Theravada Buddhists in terms of percentage, following the global trend in that they are both decreasing annually, as presented by Pew Research Centre( 2015). 
Thailand remains an integral part of the increasingly globalised world which, as stated by Santos and Grossmann(2017), facilitated not only the mixture of ideas and religions, but also the rise of individual power. This allows for more tolerance - since one person's actions do not affect others as much- to let go of the strictness of old traditions, in favour of exegesis, diversity and inclusiveness, paving the way for new schools of thought to emerge amongst the masses. In recent years, according to Samini and Jenatabadi (2014), the rate of globalisation has increased exponentially. This facilitates large amounts of cultural diffusion, which Ferrante (2015) describes as borrowing an idea from another piece of information. The ease to gain knowledge as catalysed by Thailand's economic development and subsequent increased access to the internet allows the Thais to experience a real-time portal to the rest of the secular world which requires little physical movement. Varying ideas about Buddhism have spread to the rest of the world and return to Thailand altered and renewed. This reflects its composite, inclusive and ever-changing nature as opposed to the paradigm of the more static and compartmentalised syncretism. Whilst not all societies introduced to new religions attempt to change it, the practise of this philosophy within individual, cultural and sometimes worldly contexts leads to an inevitable altering of the original practice, further heightened by immigration to and from Thailand on account of its growing economic prosperity. Within urbanising societies, a sense of isolation and deracination pushes new inhabitants to look for alternative sources of guidance, perhaps incorporating other idols into their mode of religion or including them on altars in their homes. It is the seemingly impossible combination of a few possibly opposing values, which leads to an entirely new way of approaching belief and engagement in a less staunch version of religion, rather than merely having both modern and Buddhist values occur concurrently in their original forms, which would be the syncretic way of looking at Buddhism.
Instead, the emergence of a new age of Thais has facilitated the creation of an entirely new industry: the capitalisation and commoditisation of Buddhism. This arises because even though excessive materialism is generally frowned upon in Buddhism, the reality is that the Buddhist industry in Thailand is "worth over fifty billion baht", roughly over two billion Singapore Dollars, highlighting that material goods have irrevocably become a larger part of the lives of the urban Thais, following the trend of many other economically developing countries, as mentioned by Ellen (1996). The clearest example of this is that amulets from certain monks can fetch prices as high as 500 dollars, and there is great competition amongst peddlers of religious items, especially to unknowing tourists. Rather than merely having both capitalism and Buddhist values occur concurrently in their original forms, this industry is a representation of the hybrid nature of Buddhism in Thailand as it is the reconciliation of 2 seemingly opposing values, which leads to an entirely new way of approaching belief and engagement in religion. The creation of an entire new commercial industry stands testament to the amalgamation of fluidity and adaptability in the religious climate today, contrasting the static and unchanging nature of Buddhism as emphasized in the syncretic point of view.  Buddhism therefore adapts to the personal values of Thais, fostering new balance and integration between the old world and the new. This creation of a new industry encapsulates the hybridism of prevalent religion in Thailand. Similarly, Pattana Kitiarsa (2012) states that in Thailand, religious values are embedded in national culture, making it unlikely that cultural rituals be completely forgotten. 
In conclusion, the symbiotic relationship between Buddhism and secular aspects of Thailand forces the general public to think of them together, and how one relates to the other. This is done as opposed to syncretically separating the two, thereby allowing one - the state- to take precedence over the other. Since religion and the state are so tightly interlinked, it would be impossible to remove one without the other. Thus, having to alter religious practices to suit modern day standards of human rights and religious freedom is a cause of the hybrid nature of Buddhism as it evolves to meet the needs of a society struggling to stay relevant. This is especially true given Thailand's recent political upheavals, as well as the unveiling of scandalous behaviour from the formerly respected monks. Hybridisation in Thai religion is a result of globalisation and increasingly complex societies, triggered in part by the loss of power of the ones who first enforced the rule. Whilst whether or not this continued hybridisation of popular Thai religion- and the opinions of practitioners-  will hold over time without conflict remains to be seen, what can be established is that popular Thai religion is constantly evolving, and will continue to change for the rest of Thailand's existence as a nation. 
(Word count: 1795) 
Bibliography

Watson, C. W. and Ellen, R. (1996). Understanding Witchcraft and Sorcery in Southeast Asia. Introduction. (pp. 16). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993.

Ferrante, J. (2015). Sociology: A Global Perspective, ninth edition. Culture. (pp. 64). Cengage Learning. 

Grossmann, I. and Santos, H. C. (2017). Individualistic Practices and Values Increasing Around the World. Association for Psychological Science. Retrieved from https://www.psychologicalscience.org/news/releases/individualistic-practices-and-values-increasing-around-the-world.html

Hays, J. (2008). Buddhism and Religion in Thailand. Religion in Thailand. Retrieved from http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Thailand/sub5_8b/entry-3212.html
Kitiarsa, P. (2012). Mediums, monks, and amulets: Thai popular Buddhism Today. Beyond Syncretism. (pp. 11-34). Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. 
Kraidy, M. M. (2002). Hybridity in Cultural Globalization. Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Communication. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bac3/c0ba42f73c9d697809c7f0fd01aad1fbbafb.pdf
Lefevre, A. S. and Niyomyat, A. Politics and corruption fuel battle for Thai Buddhism's top post. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-thailand-buddhism/politics-and-corruption-fuel-battle-for-thai-buddhisms-top-post-idUSKCN0UT0AI

McCargo, D. (2007). Buddhism, democracy and identity in Thailand. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1351034042000234576?src=recsys&journalCode=fdem20

Pew Research Centre. (2015). The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010-2050. Buddhists. Retrieved from http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/buddhists/
Richard, H. L. (2014). Religious Syncretism as a Syncretistic Concept: The Inadequacy of the “World Religions” Paradigm in Cross-Cultural Encounter. Thinking about Syncretism. Retrieved from http://www.ijfm.org/PDFs_IJFM/31_4_PDFs/IJFM_31_4-Richard.pdf

Samimi, P., & Jenatabadi, H. S. (2014). Globalization and Economic Growth: Empirical Evidence on the Role of Complementarities. PLoS ONE, 9(4), e87824. Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0087824
Thomas Kirsch, A. (1977). The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 36, No. 2. Complexity in the Thai Religious System: An Interpretation.( pp. 241-266). Association for Asian Studies.



Overview Essay
Question: Which is the more plausible theory—syncretism or hybridism/hybridity?
Topic: Popular religion in Thailand and the paradigms which best describe it
Thesis: Hybridism is likely to be the more representative and plausible description of the current demographic due to developments and the changing circumstances of Thailand in the last few decades.
(1) The decreased power in recent years of the main authority figures of Buddhism in Thailand have left the direction and interpretation of Buddhist teachings and philosophy open to interpretation and therefore easier to penetrate, mixing with new ideas.
Source?
(2) Modern ways of thinking arising from rapid urbanization have infiltrated and, in some cases, overridden the past reliance on Buddhism with regards to the direction and decisions made in daily life.
Source?
(3) The increasingly globalised world facilitates not only the mixture of ideas and religions, but also the tolerance to let go of the strictness of old traditions, paving the way for new schools of thought to emerge amongst the masses.
Source?
Reason/Evidence (1): In the past, Thomas Kirsch (1977) characterised Buddhism in 3 aspects, all moving in sync with one another: Theravada Buddhism, Brahmanism and Animism. In the past, when the Sangha-the primary monastic assembly in Thailand- held more power, it would have been easy to see why people who disagreed with their interpretation of orthodox Buddhist teachings may have been excommunicated, thereby being forced to break away and form another branch incorporating their beliefs. This leaves no room for inclusiveness or the mixture of old ideas with the new. These days, however, Buddhism is more open to hybridism. Recent scandals and rumours regarding corruption within Buddhist monks and even the Sangha itself as reported by Lefevre and Niyomyat (2016), have resulted in the Sangha's reduced influence over the Thai masses. With the decline in the Sangha's stronghold over the belief of the masses, there was no central direction or authority figure to reinforce the orthodox interpretation of Buddhism to drive and direct the religion. This leaves popular religion in Thailand more diverse and personalised, transitioning to a values-based way of life instead of rules-based, and therefore allowing for the creation of new beliefs about a centuries-old religion. 

HOW hybridization has come about because of that.  

Reason/Evidence (2): 
An increasing number of Thais are relying less on Buddhism due to the emergence of scientific enquiry and empirical reasoning, both by-products of rapid urbanisation. However, according to Pattana Kitiarsa (2012), in Thailand, religious values are still embedded in national culture, making it unlikely that its rituals be completely forgotten. Instead, the emergence of a new age of Thais has facilitated the creation of an entirely new industry: the commoditisation (HOW HYBRIDISM)  of Buddhism. This arises because even though excessive materialism is generally frowned upon in Buddhism, the reality is that the Buddhist industry in Thailand is "worth over fifty billion baht", roughly over two billion Singapore Dollars, highlighting that material goods have irrevocably become a larger part of the lives of the Thais, following the trend of many other economically developing countries. Buddhism therefore must adapt to the personal values of the Thais, fostering new balance and integration between the old world and the new. 
How has this guided the Thai value system and way of life? In what way is this phenomenon a form of "hybridity"?
Reason/Evidence (3) In recent years, according to Samini and Jenatabadi (2014), the rate of globalisation has increased exponentially. This facilitates large amounts of cultural diffusion, which Ferrante (2015) describes as "the process by which an idea, an invention, or some other cultural item is borrowed from a foreign source. The borrowing may include imitating, stealing, purchasing, copying, or learning about something." The ease to gain knowledge as catalysed by Thailand's economic development and subsequent increased access to the internet allows the Thais to experience a portal to the rest of the world which requires little physical movement and virtually no time. This has allowed varying ideas about Buddhism to spread to the rest of the world and return to Thailand altered and renewed. This reflects the hybrid nature of Buddhism as opposed to the paradigm of syncretism. Whilst not all societies introduced to new religions attempt to change it, the practise of this philosophy within individual cultural and sometimes worldly contexts leads to an inevitable altering of the original practice, further heightened by immigration to and from Thailand on account of its growing economic prosperity. Within urbanising societies, a sense of isolation and deracination pushes new inhabitants to look for alternative sources of guidance, perhaps incorporating other idols into their mode of religion or including them on altars in their homes. It is the reconciliation of a few possibly opposing values, which leads to an entirely new way of approaching belief and engagement in a less staunch version of religion, rather than merely having both modern and Buddhist values occur concurrently in their original forms, which would be the syncretic way of looking at the religion. 

(Word count: 791) 
Bibliography
Ferrante, J. (2015). Sociology: A Global Perspective, ninth edition. Culture. (pp. 64). Cengage Learning. 
Kraidy, M. M. (2002). Hybridity in Cultural Globalization. Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Communication. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bac3/c0ba42f73c9d697809c7f0fd01aad1fbbafb.pdf
Kitiarsa, P. (2012). Mediums, monks, and amulets: Thai popular Buddhism Today. Beyond Syncretism. (pp. 11-34). Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. 
Lefevre, A. S. and Niyomyat, A. Politics and corruption fuel battle for Thai Buddhism's top post. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-thailand-buddhism/politics-and-corruption-fuel-battle-for-thai-buddhisms-top-post-idUSKCN0UT0AI
Richard, H. L. (2014). Religious Syncretism as a Syncretistic Concept: The Inadequacy of the “World Religions” Paradigm in Cross-Cultural Encounter. Thinking about Syncretism. Retrieved from http://www.ijfm.org/PDFs_IJFM/31_4_PDFs/IJFM_31_4-Richard.pdf

Samimi, P., & Jenatabadi, H. S. (2014). Globalization and Economic Growth: Empirical Evidence on the Role of Complementarities. PLoS ONE, 9(4), e87824. Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0087824
Thomas Kirsch, A. (1977). The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 36, No. 2. Complexity in the Thai Religious System: An Interpretation.( pp. 241-266). Association for Asian Studies.




Question: Which is the more plausible theory—syncretism or hybridism/hybridity?
This paper seeks to explore the credibility of two theories regarding popular religion in Thailand. From an anthropological perspective, syncretism can be explained as the combination of the world views from different cultures (Richard, 2014). Hybridism, on the other hand, is the creation of a new culture from parts of pre-existing ideologies (Kraidy, 2002). In comparing the two theories, it must be argued that whilst both coexist in the realm of Southeast Asian supernaturalism, hybridism is likely to be the more representative and plausible of the current demographic, due to the fact that the increasingly globalised world facilitates not only the mixture of ideas and religions, but also the tolerance to let go of the strictness of old traditions, paving the way for new schools of thought to emerge amongst the masses. Many modern Southeast Asians have developed scepticism towards their indigenous ancestors' religion due to the emergence of scientific enquiry and empirical reasoning. However, according to Pattana Kitiarsa (2012), in Thailand, religious values are embedded in national culture, making it unlikely that cultural rituals be completely forgotten. Instead, the emergence of a new age of Thais has facilitated the coexistence of both the old world and the new in examples such as the capitalism of Buddhism. This arises because even though excessive materialism is generally frowned upon in Buddhism, the Buddhist industry in Thailand is "worth over fifty billion baht", roughly over two billion Singapore Dollars. It is the reconciliation of two seemingly opposing values, which leads to an entirely new way of approaching belief and engagement in religion. Rather than merely having both capitalism and Buddhist values occur concurrently in their original forms. this creation of a new industry encapsulates the hybridism of prevalent religion in Thailand. 
(Word count: 289)
Bibliography
Kraidy, M. M. (2002). Hybridity in Cultural Globalization. Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Communication. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bac3/c0ba42f73c9d697809c7f0fd01aad1fbbafb.pdf
Kitiarsa, P. (2012). Mediums, monks, and amulets: Thai popular Buddhism Today. Beyond Syncretism. (pp. 11-34). Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. 
Richard, H. L. (2014). Religious Syncretism as a Syncretistic Concept: The Inadequacy of the “World Religions” Paradigm in Cross-Cultural Encounter. Thinking about Syncretism. Retrieved from http://www.ijfm.org/PDFs_IJFM/31_4_PDFs/IJFM_31_4-Richard.pdf

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